Dang! EDIT: I think that your system does not have the GMA, and therefore wasn't going to install the drivers for it. The Intel Turbo Boost is just a CPU feature that's unrelated. You either have an Nvidia 3d gfx built in ontop of your Intel HD, or we need to try drivers straight from Intel.
I did just find this: https://www.dell.com/community/Laptops-General-Read-Only/Latitude-E6510-Intel-Gr...
It's not the exact same as your laptop, but apparently some people have had better luck installing drivers directly from Intel, instead of from Dell. I also just realized that the Minecraft forum guy also says to download the drivers directly from Intel, and not the Dell website. I wonder if this would've worked for you with Win10 installed still (Win7 is still better).
I suppose you could use the auto-detect utility they have on their site: https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/support/detect.html
You might already have perfectly usable drivers for everything else already, so I'd suggest just manually seeking whatever graphics/video driver is listed by the auto-detect results. Then go ahead and try a manual extract/install like you were doing before with the Have Disk route. This *has* to work.
Fingers are crossed!